Moral Dilemma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Moral Dilemma - Essay Example (Moral Dilemmas: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Therefore, it makes good sense to state that for a given agent, under a set of given circumstances, there are reasons to do either A or B, and this even when it is a fact that one set of reasons may be stronger than the other. (Foot, 2003) Does this mean, for a fact, that all moral dilemmas end up with a residue of guilt (Moral Dilemmas and Moral Ambiguity) This is a situation which in essence constitutes a real life moral dilemma: a woman, who is six months pregnant, discovers that she has bowel cancer. She must undergo treatment for the same, which is chemotherapy, but at the same time, she has been informed that the treatment would most probably end up deforming her unborn baby. Should the woman decide to go ahead with the chemotherapy, thus taking a chance with her unborn baby, or must she opt to wait for the baby to be born in order to start treatment, which may in fact endanger her own life What are the ethical issues involved in such a case, and what is the moral dilemma that the woman is facing at the present time The main issue or moral dilemma would be whether the woman must opt to have the chemotherapy or not. What then would be the alternatives for the unfortunate woman What are the different ethical issues that would be involved in the alternative courses of action for the woman Is it possible for the woman to be able to reason out, eventually, which horn of the moral dilemma would in fact be the best choice possible (Moral Dilemmas and Moral Ambiguity) What are the ethical issues involved in this case What, as a matter of fact, is referred to as 'ethics', and what is 'morality' How can an individual behave in a moral and in an ethical manner Today, especially, these issues and other similar ones seem to be overtaking the people, and most especially, younger people, who are faced with rapid changes and developments in all aspects of life. For example, one issue that has been in the forefront for some time is that of 'bioethics'. This is an extremely difficult field, because it is almost all the time concerned with some of the subjects that trouble man the most, life, death, the nature of both, what sort of life is actually worth living, what exactly constitutes murder, how exactly one must treat individuals who are in constant and relentless pain, what sort of responsibilities does one human being have towards another, and so on and so forth. (Issues in Bioethics, ethical dilemmas in biology and medicine) The other topic that seems to be the cause of several rancorous debates between groups of people is that of abortion of the fetus, pregnancy choices of a woman and other related issues. Medical treatments is also one issue that troubles many people, and the related topics here would be what is death, and what exactly constitutes the state of death Is there a bright line of sorts that would identify and state that this is what death is (Issues in Bioethics, ethical dilemmas in biology and medicine) As a matter of fact, doctors are faced all the time with moral dilemmas, and as far as Western medicine is concerned, the doctor-patient relationship gives rise to the 'principle of not doing any harm' or what is known as 'non-malfeasance'.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Essay Example for Free

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Essay When you say that something is impasse, it means that something that is being negotiated cannot be resolved or the two contending parties have reached a deadlock. It is a French word that could also mean or pertain to a situation that cannot progress at all due to misunderstanding between the parties concerned. One example of this situation would be the discourse between the employer and the employees regarding their Collective Bargaining Agreement. Labor history could prove that several negotiations of this kind has encountered several deadlocks hence, has become an impasse. It is basically due to the fact that at some points, the two parties concerned are not willing to sacrifice or give in to the conditions of the other. This scenario is very dangerous for it may result to boycott, demonstrations or protests as far as the employees are concerned. And on the other hand, it may result to retrenchment, as far as the employer is concerned. For there are two opposing interests, there would also be equal reactions to the issue concerned. As for me, if I would be the one to resolve this issue, I would find common grounds between the employees and the employer where each of them would benefit with the resolution of their problem. It may be in the form of an increase in the wages for this has been the long concern of workers around the world, and I believe is more just for both of the parties concerned. Through this, I believe this impasse would be resolved. REFERENCE Impasse. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,: Fourth Edition. 2000: Houghton Mifflin Company: USA.

Penelope and Odysseus of Homers Odyssey Essay -- Homer Odyssey Essays

Penelope and Odysseus of Homer's Odyssey    Penelope and Odysseus, being kin spirits, soul mates, and a great husband and wife in their own right, are very much alike.   They have many of the same qualities.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Both Penelope and Odysseus are very quick thinking and cunning.   Odysseus, for example, devises the plan to get the Cyclops to drink the wine so the crew could stab him in the eye.   Another example of Odysseus' cunning is his elaborate plan to massacre the suitors.   Odysseus orders that all the weapons be taken out of the room where the arrow contest was being held, then that the women of the household to be locked in their rooms, as to not interfere, then for the doors to be locked by his allies, then to...

Book Paper Brave New World

His character is an outsider, even more so than Bernard Marx. However, with clear understanding and analyses of Shakespeare arena works and themes, John is able to put his complicated feelings into words. The values he takes from it also gives him a solid foundation on which to base his criticisms of the World State.It also enables him to ask good questions and SST ND his ground during his deep discussion of God with Mustache Mood (Huxley 2 02). ; John rejects the society values. He acts boldly in calling the Deltas to rebellion n and in throwing out the soma (Huxley 204). Finally, he faces the powerful Mustache Mood deliberately and intelligently and sets out on his own to create life for himself, which ends in tragedy (Huxley 286). John is held back by his o destructive tendencies toward violence and selenologist. Although John despise conditioning, Huxley reveals that John has been conditioned, too.Because of t he reverie conditions of his life in Mammals, John associates sex with humiliation a ND pain and character with suffering, and this destructive view gains further pop John's response to the poetry of Shakespeare. John's conditioning limits his a ability to act freely, making him a deeply flawed potential hero. His death is the result t of his own imperfect understanding as well as the inhuman forces of the brave n ewe world. The scene that best exemplifies this character is likely the taking of his own life (Huxley 310).This was ultimately a breaking point. Because of who John is, an he â€Å"nature† of his own personality and beliefs and feelings, suicide is the cacti on he was finally reduced to taking. 3. Mustache Mood Only Mood's extraordinary power keeps him safe from whispers of his dangerous knowledge and collection of unorthodox books. He is untouched able but not unreachable. With Hellholes and John, Mood discusses the unspoken assume options of the society they find so constricting, even confessing his own youthful experiment s In cha llenging authority (Huxley 169).Mood knows the nature Of the malcontent (he once was one of them) but he is committed to keeping the society stable. He uses his power for others' happiness, he explains, not his own. During his lectures, Mood express sees his unique views on the themes of freedom, happiness, civilization, and heroism. His dry delivery contributes not only to the satiric tone of the novel, but to John and h is thought processes through their intellectual discussions. 4.The central conflict lies between John the Savage whom Bernard Marx brings from the savages' Reservation and the New World. As a representative of humans as t hey once were before babies were â€Å"decanted,† John does not understand the lack of lit ratter and he arts; nor, does he understand that â€Å"everyone belongs to everyone else†the promiscuity of the New World. In general, the demutualization of the resided TTS of the New World who engage in gratuitous sex and who are repulsed by death and who escape any troubling feelings by using soma troubles him.This conflict of John the Savage with the New World represents the larger conflict of humanity vs.. Scientific techno struggle which man appears to be losing. John the Savage fights to retain his f redeem to feel emotions, to suffer, to age, to fail; in short, he struggles to remain human. For,he realizes that he will no longer be a real man if he becomes socially stable in the e New World because this stability depends upon soma, and regression, and his relinquishing of individual thought. 5.The year is OAF 632. (OAF means After Ford, or after the Model T). After doing the e math, We conclude that the setting Of this novel is 2540 A. D. In London, England and New Mexico, USA. 6. Theme: The government of Brave New World retains control by making its cit sense so happy and superficially fulfilled that they don't care about their personal free doom. In Brave New World, ONE theme is that the consequences of state co ntrol are a I joss of dignity, morals, values, and emotions-?in short, a loss of humanity. . Symbol: The drug soma is a symbol of the use of instant gratification to control the Woo RL State's populace. It is also a symbol of the powerful influence of science and techno gay on society.

Understanding The Stereochemistry Of Organic Compounds Environmental Sciences Essay

Stereoisomers are defined as molecules of indistinguishable atomic composings ( molecular expression ) , but with different adhering agreements of atoms or orientation of their atoms in infinite. Based on this definition, several types of isomerism are possible including constitutional, configurational, and conformational isomerism. Constitutional isomers ( besides called structural or positional isomers ) are molecules with the same atomic composing but different adhering agreements between atoms, as illustrated by theexamples of catechol, resorcinol, and hydroquinone. All of these compounds have the same atomic composing ( C6H6O2 ) , but different adhering agreements of atoms and are therefore distinguishable chemical entities with different chemical and physical belongingss. Stereochemistry ( from the the Greek stereos, intending solid ) refers to chemistry in three dimensions. Since most molecules are three dimension, stereochemistry, infact, prevade all chemical science. It is non so much a subdivision of the topic as a point of position, and wheather one choose to take this point of position in any given state of affairs depends on the job one wants to work out and on the tools one has available to work out it. We factorize stereochemistry into its ststic and dynamic aspects.STATIC stereochemistry ( better called stereochemistry of molecules ) trades with the numeration of stereoisomer, with their construction, with their energy and with their physical and most of their spectral belongings. DYNAMIC stereochemistry ( stereochemistry of reaction ) deals with the stereochemical demand and stereochemical result of chemical reactions, including interconversion of conformational isomerms. If we represent the undermentioned fanciful molecule with no stereochemistry, there is nil seemingly particular about it: However, if we represent it to the full, including the place of atoms in infinite, it becomes evident that the description above is obscure, as it encompasses two molecules ; those below: This is what stereochemistry is we can specify compounds into many manner and can besides arise many new compouds. So stereochemistry is chemical science that surveies the belongings of isomers. History Historically the beginnings of stereochemistry root from the find of plane polarized visible radiation by the French physicist MALUS. In 1815 biot note that certain natural organic compounds rotate plane polarized visible radiation as ARGO ( 1811 ) , discovered that a vitreous silica home base, cut at a right angle to its crystal axis, rotates the plane polarized visible radiation through an angle proportional to the thickness of the home base. S ome vitreous silica crystal rotate towards left while some to the right. However in 1847 LOUIS PASTEUR find that equimolar solution of seprated mixture have equal but opposite optical activity. In 1874 LEBEL and VAN'T-HOFF proposes that C with 4 fond regard is tetrahedral and a molecule holding a teahedral geometry will be as brace of two isomer. Isomerism Isomers are defined as molecules of indistinguishable atomic composings ( molecular expression ) , but with different adhering agreements of atoms or orientation of their atoms in infinite. Based on this definition, several types of isomerism are possible including constitutional, configurational, and conformational isomerism. Constitutional isomers ( besides called structural or positional isomers ) are molecules with the same atomic composing but different adhering agreements between atoms, as illustrated by theexamples of catechol, resorcinol, and hydroquinone. All of these compounds have the same atomic composing ( C6H6O2 ) , but different adhering agreements of atoms and are therefore distinguishable chemical entities with different chemical and physical belongingss. GEOMETRIC ISOMERISM Geometric isomers have the same empirical expression or molecular expression and besides the same structural expression, but have a different comparative agreement of the substituent groups. For illustration, the two geometric isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene ( Figure 2 ) have the molecular expression of C2H2Cl2, and the same structural expression of Cl ( H ) C=C ( H ) Cl, but the comparative place of the two Cl atoms can either be the same side of the C=C dual bond ( i.e. , Commonwealth of Independent States, see Figure 2a ) or on opposite sides of the C=C dual bond ( i.e. , trans, see Figure 2b ) . The usage of Commonwealth of Independent States and trans is non limited to organic compounds such as alkenes, but can besides be used in metal composites, e.g. , Figure 3. Figure 2: The two geometric isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene. Figure 3: Examples of ( a ) Commonwealth of Independent States and ( B ) trans geometric isomers for metal composites. When it is non possible to depict geometric isomers by the footings cis or trans, the footings facial ( fac, Figure 4a ) or meridinal ( thousand, Figure 4b ) are normally employed. Examples of ( a ) fac and ( B ) mer geometric isomers for metal composites. POLARIMETRY AND OPTICAL ROTATION Polarized visible radiation is obtained by go throughing ordinary visible radiation through a polarizer, such as nicol prism.The orientation of the polarizer ‘s axis of polarisation determines the plane of the ensuing polarized visible radiation. Optical Activity: – Unpolarized visible radiation from a suited beginning is made to go through through a polarizer that normally consists of a brace of crossed Nichol prisms. The light go forthing the polarizer is flat polarized and, in the diagram, the angle of the Nichol prisms has been adjusted to bring forth vertically polarized visible radiation. This visible radiation is so passed through a tubing incorporating the sample. If the sample is optically active, the plane of the polarized visible radiation will be rotated, as shown in figure The extent of rotary motion will depend on the polarizability of the substance and its concentration. The visible radiation from the sample cell is so passed through another brace of crossed Nichol prisms called the analyser. The analyser prisms are so rotated so that the familial visible radiation is once more vertically polarized. The angle through which the analyser has been turned is called the angle of polarisation. Clockwise rotary motion of polarized visibl e radiation is designated as ( + ) and anti clockwise rotary motion as ( ) . The constituted method of specifying rotary motion is that the ( + ) isomer is termed dextro and the ( ) isomer laevo. Optical activities of enantiomorph A brace of enantiomorph are distinguised by their optical activites because a brace of enantiomorphs rotates the plane of polarized visible radiation by equal sums in opposite way. In a mixture of two enantiomorphs, each contribute to the optical rotary motion in proportion to its concentration.It follows that a sample incorporating equal sums of two enantiomorph must hold an ascertained optical rotary motion of nothing. Enantiomorph of tartaric acid is: Enantiomorph Enantiomorphs are compounds that have the same ordination of atoms as each other, but that differ from one another when viewed in three dimensions. The compound drawn to the left is an enantiomorph because it has the H3C group projecting up from the page toward the reader. The corresponding enantiomorph would hold the H3C group projecting below the page off from the reader. A racemic mixture refers to a 50:50 mixture of two matching enantiomorphs. CHIRALITY Chirality is a structural belongings of an object. An object is said to bechiral if its mirror image can non be superimposed with itself by the agencies of rotary motions. The most familiar illustration of a chiral object is our manus. To see this, we foremost have to convert ourselves that our two custodies are mirror images of each other. Then we can pass hours revolving our two custodies around and seeking to superpose them point-to-point, merely to happen out that it is impossible. Thus a human manus is a chiral object. An object is said to be achiral if its mirror image is its exact reproduction DIASTEREOMER They are different physical/chemical belongingss in chiral/achiral environments. Stereoisomers that are non enantiomer are called diastereomers. FISHER PROJECTION Fischer projections are used to visually depict assorted isomers of the same compound in two dimensions. They are besides used as a basic trial for optical activity ( or chirality ) . The Fischer projection looks like a cross, with the ( unseeable ) asymmetric C located at the points where the lines cross. The horizontal lines are taken to be cuneuss, or bonds that project out of the plane of the paper. The perpendicular lines are taken to project away organize the spectator, or back below the plane of the paper, as dotted lines. Configuration Configurational isomers are defined as molecules of indistinguishable atomic composing and adhering agreements of atoms, but different orientations of atoms in infinite, and these different orientations can non interconvert freely by bond rotary motion. Since these types of isomers differ merely in comparative spacial orientations of atoms, they are normally referred to as stereoisomers. Configurational stereoisomers are subcategorized as optical isomers ( enantiomorphs ) or geometric isomers ( Fig. 2 ) , depending upon the hybridisation province and geometry of the atoms that impart the belongingss of stereoisomerism and the overall construction of the molecule. Stereoisomers of this type are distinguishable chemical entities that may hold different chemical and physical belongingss. Conformation Conformational isomers ( conformers ) are stereoisomeric signifiers characterized by different comparative spacial agreements of atoms that result from rotary motion about sigma bonds. Therefore, unlike configurational isomers, conformers are interconverting stereochemical signifiers of a individual compound. STEREOCHEMICAL Correlation The absolute constellation of most organic compounds are determined alternatively by utilizing chemical reaction correlative with other compounds of known absolute compounds is known as stereochemical correlativity. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF CHEMICAL REACTION No chemical reaction can be planned without stereochemical inside informations, and no chemical reaction can be planned without sing jobs oe stereochemistry that might originate. A.STEREOCHEMICHEMISTRY OF ADDITION REACTION An add-on reaction can happen in either of two stereochemically different ways, called syn add-on and anti add-on. Stereochemistry of an add-on can be determined merely when the stereochemically different manners of add-on give rise to stereochemically different merchandises. Syn and anti add-on gives different merchandises merely when both Cs of the dual bond becomes carbon stereocentre in the merchandise. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SUBSITITUTION REACTION A permutation reaction can happen in two stereochemically different ways, called keeping of constellation and inversion of constellation so x and x ‘ have the same comparative stereochemical place. Substation rxn with keeping of constellation is It implies that if x and x ‘ have the same comparative precedences in the R, S system so the C that undergoes subsititution will hold the same constellation in the reactant and the merchandise. When the subsititution occur with inversion of constellation so x and x ‘ have different comparative stereochemical places. Subsititution with inversion of constellation is: They have same comparative precedences in the R, S system, so the C that undergoes permutation must hold opposite constellation in the reactant and the merchandise. Stereochemistry of A Chemical reactions Two merchandises are formed when a chiral substrate that possesses an asymmetric, electrophilic C is applied in an A reaction. One of them has the same absolute constellation as the get downing merchandise ( if, harmonizing to the CIP regulations, the go forthing group and the nucleophile have the same place in the precedence order of the substituents ) , which is called keeping. In contrast, the other merchandise possesses the opposite absolute constellation, known as inversion. In reactions, the nucleofuge exits the substrate before the nucleophilic onslaught can of all time happen. Thus, an intermediate carbocation is so formed. Due to the carbocation ‘s rhombohedral planar form, its two enantiotopic sides are susceptible to assail by the nucleophile with the same chance. Stereochemistry ofA Chemical reactions If a pure enantiomorph is applied to an reaction, three different stereochemical consequences are imaginable: The initial spacial agreement of the reaction centre ‘s substituents remains ( keeping ) . The initial substituent ‘s spacial agreement is inverted ( inversion ) . Retention, every bit good as inversion takes topographic point. If keeping and inversion occur to the same grade, the reaction yields a racemate ( racemization ) . Stereochemistry of E2 Elimination In the E2 riddance reaction, the carbon-hydrogen sigma bond and the carbon-leaving group sigma bond must lie in the same plane. This allows the orbitals to get down to overlap to organize the pi bond as the bonds to the H and the go forthing group are broken. There are two possible two-dimensional agreements of these bonds: both on the same side of the C-C bond ( syn-coplanar ) ; or on opposite sides of the C-C bond ( anti-coplanar ) In syn the bond from the C to the go forthing group ( green ) and the bond from the other C to the H ( bluish ) are syn-coplanar. The dihedral angle between these bonds is zero grades. This conformation is eclipsed about the carbon-carbon bond In anti the bond from the C to the go forthing group ( green ) and the bond from the other C to the H ( bluish ) are anti-coplanar. The dihedral angle between these bonds is 180 grades. This conformation is staggered about the carbon-carbon bond. Because this conformation is more stable than the eclipsed conformation required for syn riddance, anti riddance is preferred in E2 reactions STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ALKANEConformationsAlkane conformers arise from rotary motion around sp3 hybridised C C sigma bonds. The smallest methane series with such a chemical bond, C2H6, exists as an infinite figure of conformations with regard to rotation around the C-C bond. Two of these are recognised as energy lower limit ( staggered ) and energy upper limit ( eclipsed ) signifiers. The being of specific conformations is due to hindered rotary motion around sigma bonds, although a function for hyperconjugation is proposed by a viing theory. CONSTITUTIONAL ISOMER There are different types of isomer. Isomers such as butane and isobutane that differ in the connectivity of their atom are termed as constitutional isomer.butane and isobutane are merely constitutional isomer with the formulaC4H10. However, more constitutional isomer are possibles for methane series with more C atoms. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ALKENE The stereochemistry of halogen add-on is unambiguously determined by the anti add-on and the about wholly restricted rotary motion of the carbon-carbon bond of the halonium ion. Therefore, the bromination of cis-2-butene outputs a racemate of ( 2R,3R ) – and ( 2S,3S ) -dibromobutane, whereas the bromination of trans-2-butene outputs the meso compound. CIS TRANS GEOMETRY OF ALKENE If olefines have two different substituents at each terminal of the C=C so they can be as stereoisomers ( as geometric isomers ) . This is because there is restricted rotary motion of the dual bond due to the pi bond CIS TRANS E-Z SYSTEM The cis- / trans- manner is based on the longest concatenation whereas the E/Z manner is based on a set of precedence rules.A You need to cognize both manners. Z SYSTEM cis-but-2-eneor ( Z ) -but-2-ene The E- and Z- manner is more dependable and peculiarly suited to extremely substituted olefines, particularly when the substituents are non alkyl groups. STEREOCHEMISTRY: -FUTURE PROSPECTUS AND APLLICATION 1.Temperature transition of the stereochemistry of enzymatic catalys. 2.It is used in medical intent for malarial bar, control and research 3.The HeI resonance line used for UPS was produced by DC discharge of pure He gas. 4. Stereochemistry is extremely used in biochemistry in assorted intents like enzyme accelerator e.t.c. 5. Writing ionisation is known to be one of the most of import types of chemical reaction in aerospace. Steric screening consequence of methyl group an writing ionisation in subsitutional aminobenzine. 6. Stereochemistry is ever used in detecting new compounds 7. Stereochemistry is used to cognize the belongings and other new belongings of the bing compound or the compounds non knownaˆÂ ¦.. REFRENCES Hehre, W.J. ( 1975 ) , J.AM.CHEM KARLE J. ( 1973 ) , ‘ELECTRON DIFRACTION ‘IN NACHOD, F.C AND ZUKERMAN, VOL 5 P12. ELIEL L. ERNEST ( 2009 ) , STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS, WILEY STUDENT EDITION LOUDON MARC G. ( 2009 ) ,4th EDITON, ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, OXFORD UNIERSITY PRESS Web site hypertext transfer protocol: //commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Example_of_stereoisomers hypertext transfer protocol: //www.google.co.in/imgres? imgurl=http: //img121.imageshack.us/img121/5564/81111276.jpg & A ; imgrefurl=http: //www.chemicalforums.com/index. WWW.CHEMISTRY.UK www.wileyindia/chem.com

The Detailed Guideline on Writing a Lab Report

The Detailed Guideline on Writing a Lab Report How to Write a Lab Report Writing academic research papers is a must for every psychology degree course. Before writing a report it is necessary to conduct research on human behavior and collect necessary data. Many students face difficulties with selecting research topics for their lab reports, and often attempt to make things even more difficult than they actually are. You can always consult with your supervisor, but if possible, keep it simple by choosing a memory experiment. Also ensure your topic adheres to ethical guidelines. Keep in mind that most often the paper has to be written and formatted in APA style. The Format of Lab Report As to the lab report format, you should write its title page, abstract, references and appendices sections on separate pages each. There are certain requirements to the formatting: students should use double-line spacing, font size 12 and include numbers of pages. Make sure your report has a thread of argument that links every sentence starting with the introduction and ending with the discussion. Title Page It is obvious that here, your aim is to indicate the main topic of your paper. Ensure the title page includes the IV DV. Avoid formulating the report’s title as a question. Abstract (should be written last) This part of the paper has to come at the beginning of the report but should be written at the end. It must provide a brief and clear summary of the report. Make sure it is short, but avoid using a note form. Before you start writing your own abstract, it would be great to look through some journal articles for examples. Start this section with a one-sentence summary that explains the aim and gives the rationale for the study. Then, introduce the participants and setting, describe the method used in the research work, and provide the main findings. In the last sentence, outline the â€Å"contribution to knowledge† of your study. Explain what it all means and refer to the implications of your findings. Introduction In this section of your paper, you have to explain where your hypothesis comes from. Make sure you are accurate regarding the way the research outlines the links to the hypothesis of your study. It is recommended to start this section with general theory, shortly introducing the topic. Then, narrow it down to a specific theory and research. It would be enough to refer to two or three relevant studies that logically lead to your aims and hypotheses. Make sure there is a logical progression of ideas, which improves the flow of your paper. Be precise and selective. Do not include anything that seems irrelevant. Do not turn this part into an essay. Do not include all the details in this section. You should realize that the aims do not just appear from nowhere; the preceding literature review must logically lead to this part. Devote a separate paragraph to explain what you are about to investigate and why. It is recommended to refer to the previously cited research, which should help explain your expectations. Later you have to formally state them as the hypotheses. However, keep in mind that aims are not the same as the hypotheses. You also have to state the alternate hypothesis, which should be plain, precise and include the variables under research. Method So, how to write a lab report method section? First, presume the reader does not have any knowledge of what you did. Make sure he or she is able to replicate your research using exactly what you write in this part of the paper. Provide enough detail to replicate your experiment – be brief and clear. Avoid explaining or justifying in this section, just report what you did. This section should be written in past tense. Use the following subheadings in this section of your paper: Design Here, your goal is to indicate the experimental design, to describe the independent variables, and to present various conditions. While writing about the dependent variables, check again whether they are put into use. Also, write about each used control method. Participants Indicate the target population and type of. Also, explain the way you received the. Provide such relevant details as the amount, age range, etc. Materials In this part, tell the reader which materials you used in your research, including computer equipment, surveys, word lists, etc. There is no necessity to describe all used materials – instead you can include a â€Å"sensible† level of detail. Procedure In this section of your lab report, describe in detail the procedure you followed while carrying out the research. Describe everything briefly and clearly and avoid insignificant details. Results Here, you should provide the descriptive statistics and the inferential one. Omit interpreting the results as this has to be included in the discussion. Your results must be presented in a precise and clear manner. You may want to use a table to display descriptive statistics so that it is easier to understand. Avoid including any raw data. Instead, include the following information: the kind of statistical test, clarification of whether or not a considerable difference was found, the effect size, the mean diversity, and 95% confidence intervals. Discussion In the discussion part of your lab report, outline your findings in plain English. Avoid any statistical jargon. Relate the results you received to the hypothesis you had made earlier. Clarify whether it is supported or rejected. Then, compare the results of your research to background materials you have presented in the introduction. Explain whether your results are similar or not and discuss why. Prove how confident the reader can be in the results. Indicate limitations if there are any. If you have found a reliable effect make sure to suggest limitations very carefully as you may be doubting your results. Unless you consider any confounding variable that is able to explain the outcome instead of the IV, leave the section out. Offer practical ways which you think could invest to your study. Write about the implications of your findings and their significance for the way people behave in the everyday life. Provide an idea for further research. It should be something in the similar area, but not an improved version of your study. You may want to base it on the limitations of your research. Finish this section with a statement of your findings and main points of the discussion in several sentences. References Here, you just have to provide a list of all sources cited in the research paper. You have to include them in the alphabetical order. Remember that the references section is not the same as a bibliography, which is a list of books used in the research. Simply put, each time you refer to a certain psychologist, you must reference the original source of the information. If you have been using textbooks in your study, it would be easy to write the references section because the references are usually at the back of the book so that students can just copy them down. If you have been using the Internet, then you may face certain difficulties, as many websites do not provide a reference section to copy. Also, you have to remember that references must be set out APA style. One of the simplest ways to write this section is to use Google scholar. All you have to do is to type the name and date of the author in the search box and click on the ‘cite’ link. Then, just copy the reference to your references section of the report. Writing a lab report is quite a complicated task, which requires much time, effort and specific knowledge. However, with the help of our guideline you will likely manage it with less difficulty. Just make sure to keep concentrated on your work and check everything carefully. Good luck!

Effects of the Mongol Empire on Europe

Effects of the Mongol Empire on Europe In 1211, Genghis Khan (1167-1227) and his nomadic armies burst out from Mongolia and swiftly conquered most of Eurasia. The Great Khan died in 1227, but his sons and grandsons continued the expansion of the Mongol Empire across Central Asia, China, the Middle East, and into Europe.   Key Takeaways: Genghis Khan's Impact on Europe The spread of the bubonic plague from Central Asia into Europe decimated the populations but increased opportunities for the survivors.  Ã‚  An enormous variety of new consumer goods, agriculture, weaponry, religion, and medical science became available in Europe.  New diplomatic channels between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East were opened.  Russia became unified for the first time.   Starting in 1236, Genghis Khans third son, Ogodei, decided to conquer as much of Europe as he could. By 1240, the Mongols had control of what is now Russia and Ukraine, seizing Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary over the next few years. The Mongols also tried to capture Poland and Germany, but Ogodeis death in 1241 and the succession struggle that followed distracted them from this mission. In the end, the Mongols Golden Horde ruled over a vast swath of eastern Europe, and rumors of their approach terrified western Europe, but they went no farther west than Hungary. At their height, the rulers of the Mongol Empire conquered, occupied, and controlled more than twice the amount of land and twice the population as any other family in human history.   Shepherd, William. Historical Atlas. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1911/Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain The Mongol Invasion of Europe Reports of the Mongol attacks terrified Europe. The Mongols increased their empire using swift and decisive attacks with an armed and disciplined cavalry. They wiped out the populations of some entire towns that resisted, as was their usual policy, depopulating some regions and confiscating the crops and livestock from others. This type of total warfare spread panic even among Europeans not directly affected by the Mongol onslaught and sent refugees fleeing westward. Perhaps even more importantly, the Mongol conquest of central Asia and eastern Europe allowed a deadly disease - the bubonic plague - to travel from its home range in western China and Mongolia to Europe along newly-restored trade routes. The bubonic plague was endemic to fleas that live on marmots in the steppes of eastern central Asia, and the Mongol hordes inadvertently brought those fleas across the continent, unleashing the plague on Europe. Between 1300 and 1400, the Black Death killed about 35 percent of Chinas people, its population dropping from 115 million to 75 million. In Europe, an estimated 25 percent of the people died, decreased the population from an estimated 79 million to 60 million.   Positive Effects of the Mongols Although the Mongol invasion of Europe sparked terror and disease, in the long run, it had enormous positive impacts.  The foremost was what historians call the Pax Mongolica, a century of peace (circa 1280-1360) among neighboring peoples who were all under Mongol rule. This peace allowed for the reopening of the Silk Road trading routes between China and Europe, increasing cultural exchange and wealth all along the trade paths. Central Asia was a region that had always been important to overland trade between China and the West. As the region became stable under the Pax Mongolica, trade became less risky under the various empires, and as cross-cultural interactions became more and more intensive and extensive, more and more goods were traded.   Spread of Technology Within the Pax Mongolica, the sharing of knowledge, information, and cultural identity was encouraged. Citizens could legally become followers of Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Taoism, or anything else - as long as their practice didnt interfere with the political ambitions of the Khan. The Pax Mongolica also allowed monks, missionaries, traders, and explorers to travel along the trade routes. One famous example is the Venetian trader and explorer Marco Polo, who traveled to the court of Genghis Khans grandson Kublai Khan (Quibilai) at Xanadu in China.   Some of the most fundamental ideas and technologies in the world - papermaking, printing, and gunpowder manufacturing, among many others - made their way across Asia via the Silk Road. Migrants, merchants, explorers, pilgrims, refugees, and soldiers brought along with them their disparate religious and cultural ideas and domesticated animals, plants, flowers, vegetables, and fruit as they joined this gigantic cross-continental exchange. As historian Ma Debin describes it, the Silk Road was the original melting pot, the lifeline of the Eurasian continent. Effects of the Mongol Conquest Before the Mongol Empire, Europeans and Chinese were largely unaware of the others existence. Trade established along the Silk Road in the first centuries B.C.E. had become rare, dangerous, and unpredictable. Long-distance trade, human migration, and imperial expansion actively engaged people in different societies in significant cross-cultural interactions. Afterward, interactions between the two were not only possible but encouraged.  Ã‚   Diplomatic contacts and religious missions were established over vast distances. Islamic merchants helped gain a footing for their faith at the extreme ends of the Eastern Hemisphere, spreading from southeast Asia and west Africa and across northern India and Anatolia.   Alarmed, western Europeans and the Mongol rulers of China sought a diplomatic alliance with one another against the Muslims in southwest Asia. Europeans sought to convert Mongols to Christianity and establish a Christian community in China. The Mongols saw the spread as a threat. Neither of these initiatives was successful, but the opening of political channels made a substantive difference.   Transfer of Scientific Knowledge The entire overland route of the Silk Road witnessed a vigorous revival under the Pax Mongolica. Its rulers actively worked to ensure the safety of the trade routes, building effective post stations and rest stops, introducing the use of paper money and eliminating artificial trade barriers. By 1257, Chinese raw silk appeared in the silk-producing area of Italy, and in the 1330s, a single merchant sold thousands of pounds of silk in Genoa.   The Mongolians absorbed scientific knowledge from Persia, India, China, and Arabia. Medicine became one of the many areas of life and culture that flourished under Mongol rule. Keeping an army healthy was vital, so they created hospitals and training centers to encourage the exchange and expansion of medical knowledge. As a result, China employed doctors from India and the Middle East, all of which was communicated to European centers. Kublai Khan founded an institution for the study of Western medicine. The Persian historian Rashid al-Din (1247-1318) published the first known book on Chinese medicine outside China in 1313. Unification of Russia The Golden Hordes occupation of eastern Europe also unified Russia. Prior to the period of Mongol rule, the Russian people were organized into a series of small self-governing city-states, the most notable being Kiev. In order to throw off the Mongol yoke, the Russian-speaking peoples of the region had to unite. In 1480, the Russians - led by the Grand Duchy of Moscow (Muscovy) - managed to defeat and expel the Mongols. Although Russia has since been invaded several times by the likes of Napoleon Bonaparte and the German Nazis, it has never again been conquered. The Beginnings of Modern Fighting Tactics One final contribution that the Mongols made to Europe is difficult to categorize as good or bad. The Mongols introduced two deadly Chinese inventions - guns and gunpowder - to the West. The new weaponry sparked a revolution in European fighting tactics, and the many warring states of Europe all strove over the following centuries to improve their firearms technology. It was a constant, multisided arms race, which heralded the end of knightly combat and the beginning of modern standing armies. In the centuries to come, European states would muster their new and improved guns first for piracy, to seize control over parts of the oceangoing silk and spices trade, and then eventually to impose European colonial rule over much of the world. Ironically, the Russians used their superior firepower in the 19th and 20th centuries to conquer many of the lands that had been part of the Mongol Empire, including outer Mongolia where Genghis Khan was born. Sources   Bentley, Jerry H. Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in World History. The American Historical Review, Vol. 101, No. 3, Oxford University Press, JSTOR, June 1996. Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. Asia, Central, Steppes. Encyclopedia of Archaeology, Academic Press, ScienceDirect, 2008. Di Cosmo, Nicola. Black Sea Emporia and the Mongol Empire: A Reassessment of the Pax Mongolica. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Volume 53: Issue 1-2, Brill, January 1, 2009. Flynn, Dennis O. (Editor). Pacific Centuries: Pacific and Pacific Rim Economic History since the 16th Century. Routledge Explorations in Economic History, Lionel Frost (Editor), A.J.H. Latham (Editor), 1st Edition, Routledge, February 10, 1999. Ma, Debin. The Great Silk Exchange: How the World Was Connected and Developed. CiteSeer, The College of Information Sciences and Technology, The Pennsylvania State University, 2019. Pederson, Neil. Pluvials, droughts, the Mongol Empire, and modern Mongolia. Amy E. Hessl, Nachin Baatarbileg, et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, March 25, 2014. Perdue, Peter C. Boundaries, Maps, and Movement: Chinese, Russian, and Mongolian Empires in Early Modern Central Eurasia. Volume 20, 1998 - Issue 2, The International History Review, Informa UK Limited, December 1, 2010. Safavi-Abbasi, S. The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire. Neurosurg Focus, Brasiliense LB, Workman RK, et al., National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2007, Bethesda MD.

An Analysis of Macbeths Ambition

An Analysis of Macbeths Ambition In  William Shakespeares tragedy Macbeth, ambition is presented as a dangerous quality. Because it is unchecked by any concept of morality, It causes the downfall of both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth and triggers a series of deaths, making ambition the driving force of the play. Macbeth: Ambition Macbeth’s ambition is driven by a number of factors, including: Prophecy: The Macbeth witches prophesy that Macbeth will become King. Macbeth believes them and the various prophecies are realized throughout the play. However, it is unclear whether these prophecies are preordained or self fulfilling.Lady Macbeth: his wife is the driving force that encourages Macbeth to overcome his strong sense of guilt and take action on the prophecies. Macbeth’s ambition soon spirals out of control and forces him to murder again and again to cover up his previous wrongdoings. Macbeth’s first victims are the Chamberlains who are blamed and killed by Macbeth for the murder of King Duncan. Banquo’s murder soon follows once Macbeth fears that the truth could be exposed. Consequences Ambition has series consequences in the play: Macbeth is slain as a tyrant and Lady Macbeth commits suicide. Shakespeare does not give either character the opportunity to enjoy what they have achieved – perhaps suggesting that it is more satisfying to achieve your goals fairly than to achieve them through corruption. Ambition and Morality In testing Macduff’s loyalty, Malcolm outlines the difference between ambition and morality by pretending to be greedy and power hungry. He wants to see if Macduff believes these are good qualities for a King to posses. Macduff does not and therefore demonstrates that a moral code is more important in positions of power than blind ambition. At the end of the play, Malcolm is the victorious King and Macbeth’s burning ambition has been extinguished. But is this really the end to over-reaching ambition in the kingdom? The audience is left to wonder if Banquo’s heir will eventually become king as prophesied by the Macbeth witches. Will he act on his own ambition or will fate play a part in realizing the prophecy? Or were the witches’ predictions wrong?

Research Proposal Master Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Master - Research Proposal Example These greenhouse gases, in large part, emanate from human activities, particularly the consumption of fossil fuels and the changes in the ways that land is used. But what does this have to do with business Consider the economic costs of the chaotic weather patterns that have broadened in scale over the past decades. Patterns of floods and drought that have devastated local areas have increased in their extremity. The severity and frequency of hurricanes and tornadoes, as well as in more mundane thunderstorms, have also increased. This can be attributed to the increase in global temperatures, and so one can see that increased production of greenhouse gases can have a lasting effect on business - particularly as those who owned businesses in Florida before it was hit by Hurricane Andrew, or in New Orleans before it was hit by Hurricane Katrina, can attest. The focus of this paper will be to measure the specific effects of climate change on the global economy. In other words, how will the current trend of climate change affect the world's productivity if it does not go unchecked Can the world accept President Bush's laissez-faire approach to climate control, or does the global economy demand more specific solutions Literature Search. Literature Search. I located five articles that represent a cross-section of the spectrum of thought about the ways that global climate change will affect the world's economy. Jennifer G. Hickey's essay entitled "Flaky climate data will cost U.S. dough - economic costs of global warming treaty" represents the side of the skeptics - those who feel that the science behind the idea that human activity has generated greenhouse gases that are causing higher global temperatures to be a fallacy. These skeptics generally tend to fall in the politically conservative ranks, and they see no reason for government to intervene in the affairs of business on the basis of iffy science. Implementing such measures as the Kyoto emissions treaty would have economic effects that are more easily measured and verified, in the writer's opinion, than the less tangible benefits of reduced emissions. One of the counterarguments that this essay puts forth in response to the call for reduced emissions is the idea that, between 1940 and 1970, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased dramatically, and yet the global temperature fell during that time frame (Hickey). This article goes through several economic projections of the financial effects of the Kyoto treaty on the American economy, which the Clinton Administration signed, but never sent to the Senate for formal ratification. Of interest is the fact that this article was written in 1997. During the intervening years, such writing as this has declined in the mainstream press, becoming relegated more and more to right-wing publications. It is still an argument that has its strong adherents, though, and would be an obstacle to implementing large-scale environmental regulations unless there were ironclad proof that greenhouse gas emissions directly caused global warming, and that global warming was certain to harm the economy in the future. Next, I found two sources by William D. Nordhaus. One is a brief analysis of the economic and environmental effects of the

'Is chocolate a food or a drug' Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

'Is chocolate a food or a drug' - Essay Example Chocolate has been a popular and revered flavor for many past civilizations, chocolate residue have been found in pottery dating to 1100 BC from Honduras, and 600-400 BC from Belize. Till date chocolate is one of the most popular flavors in the world and chocolate lovers known as "chocoholics" are ready to swear by its pleasurable and medicinal effects. The Mayan civilization worshipped the Cacao Tree for they believed it was divine in origin. The Mayans called the fruit of the cacao tree "food of the gods† and also associated it with the god of fertility. The Aztecs also considered the cocoa tree a gift from the god of wisdom and knowledge. They considered chocolate to be an aphrodisiac as it invigorated men and made women less inhibited, the Aztec emperor Monteczuma is said to have drank fifty golden goblets of chocolate a day in order to enhance his sexual ability (Thames & Hudson, 2000) Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cacao beans were often used as currency. Today chocolate takes the form of a substance of powder or a block composing of raw and processed food from roasted and crushed cacao seeds found from the tropical cacao tree. Chocolate has a unique appeal of sugar, texture, flavor, sweetness and aroma, making it the most common ingredient for confectionary sweet food as well as flavoring. There are three varieties of chocolate available, chocolate coated or made of dark chocolate, milk chocolate and white chocolate (Hornby 1989). Dark chocolate contains a mild content of cocoa butter and a fat that naturally occurs in cocoa beans. These beans are made up of 34% of stearic acid, 24% of oleic acid, 25% of palmitic acid and 7% of other fatty acids (Roth 2007). Milk chocolate contains two times the amount of antioxidants where as dark chocolate contains five times the amount of antioxidants (Moss 2002). While white chocolate only contain the texture and sweetness (Hemmelgarn 2006). Dark

Genocide is a neglected topic within criminal justice and criminology Essay

Genocide is a neglected topic within criminal justice and criminology. Critically analyse this statement - Essay Example tem locally or internationally seems to show a lack of enthusiasm, if such a word is possible, in creating stricter guidelines and punishments when it comes to genocide as compared to how they are, for example, in improving rules with regard to other criminal activities. Genocide is a word used by the late Jewish Polish laywer Raphael Lemkin [Balakian 2013] to describe what the Nazis did to the Jews. Later on, it was further defined by the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide as any of several listed acts conducted with an intent to destroy, partially or completely, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. (Akhavan 2007) Genocide was an evil that took the lives of countless of innocent Jewish adults and children. Unfortunately, during that time the criminal system did not have set laws to punish mass killings. The ones accountable were just punished for criminal acts in relation to international armed conflict. The carefully planned execution of the Jews by the Nazi soldiers in the Holocaust is a prime example of genocide. Unfortunately, those responsible for the killings were not charged for genocide as the term did not even exist in that period. Following its establishment as an international crime, the act of genocide reappeared in history only decades later, during the Bosnian conflict to be more specific. This was the time to see criminal justice make a stand on genocide based on the definition set during the Convention. Unluckily for the victims, their deaths have remained dishonored as those left behind are divided as to whether or not the acts fall under the definition of genocide. (Cooke-Welling 2012) This is where criminal justice appears to have neglected genocide. When it had mattered the most, the criminal justice system are still trying to reach a decision on whether the ethnic cleansing that happened in many parts of Bosnia can be considered genocide according to the established definition. Currently,

Philosophy of David Hume in response to Rene Descartes Essay

Philosophy of David Hume in response to Rene Descartes - Essay Example On the contrary, Hume responds by demonstrating his philosophy on empiricism whereby an a posteriori knowledge is required apart from analytical endeavor for such theory posits that matters of fact in the world may only be ascertained by perceiving through the senses. In the light of an empirical attempt for one to obtain certainty with truths that may be contingent, Hume necessitates engagement with observations wherein an observer becomes capable of designating philosophical connections with contiguity and identity of objects. Hume holds suspicion on Descartes’ belief on pure reasoning on the basis of arguing that causes and effects are physically adjacent in space so â€Å"the causal inference must be grounded in experience, not in any intuitive knowledge of ‘essences’†. If causes exist in reality, according to Hume, no reasoning can It is basically indispensable for Hume that humans understand how they are led to the factual goal by having resolutions to it sought through sensory experiences that are external or extrinsic by nature. Hume claims: â€Å"Even after we have experience of the operations of cause and effect, our conclusions from that experience are not founded on reasoning† that is why causal beliefs may not be treated an a priori for perceptions by sense establish a strong basis around a contingent truth that relies heavily on ‘matters of fact’ which are directly observed. Kant, nevertheless, argues â€Å"Have courage to use your own reason† in his attempt to address lack of enlightenment during his time for enlightenment in a man pertains to a state when the latter has overcome or emerged above his immature self. It is claimed that beyond man’s immaturity, there exists sufficient capacity to understand in the absence of external guiding principle and in this propos ition, the immaturity of an individual is considered to be imposed upon oneself and

What Role Should the Government play in economic life Essay

What Role Should the Government play in economic life - Essay Example ent centuries, such as Karl Marx, have questioned the right of private property, and have called for an active part in controlling the generation and distribution of wealth. The marketplace and the government meet head-on in the division of authority in the creation and distribution of goods, services, and wealth. All economists, except the most conservative capitalists, believe that the government has some role in constructing and guiding the economy. The role of the government in economics is to assure that the economy of the country is able to express its culture and societal will. Taxation is one of the primary policy functions that a government can use to stimulate or discourage economic activity. Indeed, governments require taxation to provide the necessary funding for needed projects. Ideally, it is hoped that taxation would be fair and all citizens would bear an equal tax burden based on their abilities and needs. However, capitalism has been able to develop concentrated wealth and this unbridled economic freedom has the possibility to create the perception of a shortage of resources. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were characterized by food riots as production increased the supply, markets agitated a sense of shortage, and the threat of unfair taxes interjected a sense fear into the system. The governments role in economics is to assure the fair implementation of tax laws and eradicate the fear of taxes. According to Rothschild, "Commerce will flourish only in a state with a regular administration of justice" (14). The governments role in taxati on is to sustain a high degree of confidence in the application of the existing tax laws. The governments role in economics, in regards to taxes, is the generation of confidence in justice and not directing society through tax encouragements. Governments often assume the role of directing a societys culture through a series of punitive taxes or rewarding credits. Taxes are often levied against a product,

Philosophy of David Hume in response to Rene Descartes Essay

Philosophy of David Hume in response to Rene Descartes - Essay Example On the contrary, Hume responds by demonstrating his philosophy on empiricism whereby an a posteriori knowledge is required apart from analytical endeavor for such theory posits that matters of fact in the world may only be ascertained by perceiving through the senses. In the light of an empirical attempt for one to obtain certainty with truths that may be contingent, Hume necessitates engagement with observations wherein an observer becomes capable of designating philosophical connections with contiguity and identity of objects. Hume holds suspicion on Descartes’ belief on pure reasoning on the basis of arguing that causes and effects are physically adjacent in space so â€Å"the causal inference must be grounded in experience, not in any intuitive knowledge of ‘essences’†. If causes exist in reality, according to Hume, no reasoning can It is basically indispensable for Hume that humans understand how they are led to the factual goal by having resolutions to it sought through sensory experiences that are external or extrinsic by nature. Hume claims: â€Å"Even after we have experience of the operations of cause and effect, our conclusions from that experience are not founded on reasoning† that is why causal beliefs may not be treated an a priori for perceptions by sense establish a strong basis around a contingent truth that relies heavily on ‘matters of fact’ which are directly observed. Kant, nevertheless, argues â€Å"Have courage to use your own reason† in his attempt to address lack of enlightenment during his time for enlightenment in a man pertains to a state when the latter has overcome or emerged above his immature self. It is claimed that beyond man’s immaturity, there exists sufficient capacity to understand in the absence of external guiding principle and in this propos ition, the immaturity of an individual is considered to be imposed upon oneself and

Reading response papers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reading response papers - Essay Example Merit is key factor for gaining status and even kings have to prove themselves to remain in that position. They place less importance on metals like gold, silver, iron etc. but extensively use their fertile land for cereal crops etc. Their main wealth is under sized live stocks which they value and also use them as trade exchange. They conduct all their public and private business being armed. They believe in monogamy but chiefs can take more wives so as to strengthen tribal power. The feuds and friendships come as legacy. They have different punishment for varying crimes. They welcome all invited and uninvited guests with same fervour. Gaul, Chatti, Uspi, Tencteri etc. were tribes which initially resided across the rivers and mountains but are now considered within the Germania boundary. Chhatti men do not cut their hair and beard till and wear iron ring as a mark of servitude till they kill a man to repay the debt to their parents. Freedom of Germany is paramount to all Germans which they ensure by being constantly prepared for

The Phantom of the Opera Essay Example for Free

The Phantom of the Opera Essay The future ruler of United Kingdom is about to pop into this world any time soon, and his or her parents, not to mention the whole world, are already excited. Indeed, Kate Middleton and Prince William seem like the eager and loving about-to-be parents that they are that its almost hard to imagine that they almost didnt end up together. Remember their controversial split in 2007? Four years after William and Kate started dating, the two had split in March 2007, not giving any reason why. Reports only claimed that their breakup was amicable and mutually agreed upon, but there were speculations that the royal bachelor preferred to act like one rather than be tied to one girl. So what was the real reason why the two separated and subsequently reunite? The answer, according to a new book titled Kate by Marcia Moody, is because William decided to take a different direction from his father, Prince Charles. When his father Charles was wooing Diana and the relationship reached a crossroads, Prince Philip told him that he needed to take action one way or another. And Charles proposed, excerpts of the book obtained by the Daily Mail read. â€Å"When William was faced with a similar dilemma, he went the other way So he celebrated his newly obtained freedom by standing on a table at a club and shouting Im free! while surrounded by a bevy of nearly naked beauties. And while William got drunk and partied hard, Kate consoled her broken heart by signing up for a charity challenge with an all-female dragon boat racing crew called the Sisterhood. She attended other functions, and even had gone to parties that touted her singlehood, but it was with the Sisterhood that helped distract her from the pain. Kate was very down and I think the training became her therapy. Kate had always put William first and she said this was a chance to do something for herself, her fellow rower Emma Sayle said in the book. William, meanwhile, was having second thoughts. Mindful, perhaps, of the decision his father had made when he was in his 20s and failed to marry his early love Camilla, William did not want to make the same mistake. Kate, however, needed some convincing. He had broken her heart and she wanted to make sure that if they did get back together it would be for the right reasons, and that things would change, the book reads. The two eventually got back together after a few months, but they didnt regret their time apart, however short that was. We were both very young we were both finding ourselves and being different characters. It was very much trying to find our own way and we were growing up so it was just a bit of space and it worked out for the better, William has been quoted as saying. Four years later on April 29, 2011, the two became husband and wife as they exchanged vows at the Westminster Abbey in London. And any day now, their first born will make his or her appearance on earth. According to reports, they havent named their little bundle of joy yet; they dont even know if theyre having a girl or a boy. But whatever gender they get, their child already has an impressive title attached to his or her name. The royal couples child will officially be known as His or Her Royal Highness Prince or Princess of Cambridge, a rep for Kensington Palace told Us Weekly.

The Factors Influencing Strategy Implementation Management Essay

The Factors Influencing Strategy Implementation Management Essay The aim of this module is to produce a 4000 word research proposal that would be capable for supporting the preparation of a Masters dissertation. The project report would include an introduction including a title, which would highlight the content of this business document providing a background, informing the reader of the problem / issue at hand and the context of the situation that would be discussed. The research issue would be provided highlighting the importance of the issue in todays ever-changing and competitive, cut-throat business environment. Adequate linkages would be provided to co-relate the research aims, research objectives, research questions and the hypothesis as such generated. A coherent and critical literature review would follow demonstrating the knowledge of the literature available and linking it to the situation which would be investigated. A research design and methodology would be adopted to investigate the concerned issue providing a rationale as to how the research objectives are to be accomplished explaining the selection of the research paradigm. The research design would include the methods of data capture, the data access issues, the analysis and the interpretation means that would be used to assess the situation and appropriate reasons would be provided for the choice of research tools used. Relevant ethical issues underpinning the research objectives would also be discussed along-with the resources required to complete the research proposal. The last part of this management report would include a timetable that would provide the time that it took to complete each part of the research proposal along-with a list of references utilized to complete the report. INTRODUCTION TITLE: FACTORS INFLUENCING STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION BACKGROUND The title of this research proposal is factors influencing strategy implementation. Before we discuss the issue and highlight the importance of the issue in the context of the report it is of prime importance to understand the concept of strategy implementation itself. It is the process by which the business strategy formulated is put into action. It includes the design and management of organizational systems to achieve the best integration of people and structure, allocating resources, managing human resources and developing information and decision processes to achieve organizational objectives. Pierce and Robinson  note that to effectively direct and control the use of the firms resources, mechanisms such as organizational structure, information systems, leadership styles, assignment of key managers, budgeting, rewards, and control systems are essential strategy implementation ingredients. After the creative and analytical aspects of the corporate strategy have been formulated the priority of the management is to convert the strategy into operationally effective action. A strategy is never complete, until it gains a commitment of the firms resources and becomes embodied in its organizational structure. Strategy implementation is an iterative process of implementing strategies, policies, programs and action plans that allows a firm to utilize its resources to take advantage of opportunities in the competitive environment (Harrington, 2006). There is no one definition of strategy implementation as seen from the above citations but for the purpose of this report, taking into consideration the definitions above we can define strategy implementation as an iterative, dynamic and a complex process, which comprises of series of decisions and activities by the management and the administration those affected by many interrelated internal and external factors, to turn strategic plans into reality in order to achieve the objectives of the firm. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY This part of the report would highlight the aim and the objectives of the research, discussing the issue chosen and its importance by proposing a research question and providing an answer to it in the literature review. Many studies have acknowledged that business strategies often fail not because of inadequate strategy formulation, but because of an inappropriate implementation strategy. This report would study the factors that enable or impede effective strategy implementation. This report would highlight how strategy implementation has been researched so far and how this field may be moved forward so as to help in effective execution of a business strategy. As a result of the literature review undertaken, the report has found nine critical factors for strategy implementation that will be discussed further in the literature. Formulation of an effective strategy, making the strategy work and implementing it throughout the company is a difficult task (Hrebiniak, 2006). Many factors potentially affect the process by which strategic plans are turned into organizational action. Unlike strategy formulation, strategy implementation is more of a craft, rather than a science. After successful formulation of the business strategy, difficulties usually arise during the subsequent implementation process. If the business strategy formulated is not applied correctly to all the aspects of the organisational structure the business model would fail, thus harming the organisation in many aspects, the major being the financial capability of the firm, which would take a huge blow. It is of prime importance to get the implementation right otherwise there would be huge losses for the firm. Noble (1999b) notes, the best-formulated strategies may fail to produce superior performance for the firm if they are not successfully implemented. This issue is of utmost importance in todays day and age because of the cut-throat competition in the ever-changing business world where each firm needs to keep re-modelling their policies and procedures to keep up with the change in the external and internal business environment. There are combination of issues that influence the success of strategy implementation, ranging from the people who communicate or implement the strategy to the systems or mechanisms in place for co-ordination and control. How can we better understand these issues and their importance for successful strategy implementation? In this report we try to respond to this question by the critical analysis of the existing research on the factors that influence strategy implementation. An analysis has been conducted of the most widely used literature databases to identify key factors influencing the process of strategy implementation, to surface current areas of agreement and disagreement on the topic. LITERATURE REVIEW In the following section, the report would review the study sources and assess their research context, theoretical bases, their main results and the research methods used as well as the analytical techniques which are employed for the study. The examined organizational levels and organizational types are the two elements of the research context. The core of the literature review, would concentrate on the nine factors identified through rigorous analysis of the study sources, that play a role in influencing strategy implementation success, as well as the frameworks or models that aggregate or relate the relevant factors to each other. This is followed by the discussion of the theoretical bases of the reviewed studies. Finally, the research methods and analytical techniques adopted will be reviewed to see which methods are still underutilized in the context of strategy implementation. By carrying out a literature review of the existing studies, the report found two types of strategy implementation studies: one that highlight the importance of the individual factors for strategy implementation and the second that emphasize the big pictureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ of how the single factors interrelate and form a strategic implementation environment. The research would highlight nine recurring, individual factors that influence strategy implementation. They are namely the strategy formulation process, the strategy executors (managers, employees), the organizational structure, the communication activities, the level of commitment for the strategy, the consensus regarding the strategy, the relationships among different units/departments and different strategy levels, the employed implementation tactics, and the administrative system in place. THE NINE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE STARTEGY IMPLEMENTATION 1. Strategy Formulation If the corporate strategy drafted by the business is a poor or a vague strategy, then it can limit the implementation efforts dramatically. Good execution cannot overcome the shortcomings of a bad strategy or a poor strategic planning effort (Hrebiniak, 2006). Several studies mention the fact that the kind of strategy that is developed (Alexander, 1985; Allio, 2005) and the actual process of strategy formulation, namely, how a strategy is developed (KimMauborgne, 1993; Singh, 1998) will influence the effect of implementation. Alexander (1985) believes that the need to start with a formulated strategy that involves a good idea or concept is the most crucial and critical factor which helps promoting its successful implementation. As Allio notes, good implementation naturally starts with good strategic input: the soup is only as good as the ingredients (Allio, 2005). 2. Relationships among different departments and different strategy levels Many studies in the concerned field have stressed that the institutional relationships among different units/departments and different strategy levels play a major role in the outcome of strategy implementation (Walker Ruekert, 1987; Gupta, 1987; Slater Olson, 2001; Chimhanzi, 2004; Chimhanzi Morgan, 2005). Walker Ruekert note that marketing policies, inter-functional structures and processes, corporate-business unit relationships and processes are a major influence on business strategy implementation. In addition, allocation of resources, functional competencies, inter-functional conflict, decision-making participation and influence, and coordination also have different effects on the implementation of various kinds of business strategies. Implementation effectiveness is negatively affected by conflict and positively affected by interpersonal communication and not written. Such interdepartmental dynamics are affected by senior management support informal integration and joint re ward systems. Other relationships that have received attention to a lesser extent include finance, manufacturing, engineering, quality, marketing, accounting, and sales. 3. Executors Executors comprise the top management, middle management, lower management and non-management. Effectiveness of strategy implementation is, at least in part, affected by the quality of people involved in the process (Govindarajan, 1989). The quality refers to the capabilities, experience, skills, attitudes, and other characteristics of people required by a specific position (Peng Litteljohn, 2001). Findings indicate that strategy implementation effectiveness, critically depends on the human or people side of project management, and less on organization and systems related factors. Top management refers to the senior-level leaders including presidents, owners, and other high ranking executives (CEO, CFO, COO etc.) and senior-level managers. Hrebiniak and Snow (1982) report that the level of interaction and participation among the top management team typically leads to greater commitment to the firms goals and strategies. This, in turn ensures the successful implementation of the strategy. Gupta and Govindarajan (1984) note that greater the marketing and sales experience of middle managers, the greater would be their willingness to take risk and successfully implement the strategy. Heracleous (2000) also finds that if middle management do not agree with the strategy, or do not feel that they have the skill set to implement it, then they would sabotage its implementation. Middle managers expect the direction from the top management but frequently feel that they are in a better position to start and evaluate alternative courses of action. Also, the lack of shared knowledge with lower-level management and non-management employees would create a barrier to successful strategy implementation. 4. Communication Many researchers have emphasized the importance of adequate communication channels for the process of strategy implementation. Alexander (1985) notes that communication is mentioned more frequently than any other single item that promotes successful strategy implementation. Communication includes explaining what new responsibilities, tasks, and duties need to be performed by the employees in order to implement the strategy. It answers the why behind the changed job activities, and explains the reasons why the new strategic decision was made. Rapert and Wren (1998) find that organizations where employees have easy access to management through open and supportive communication channels outperform those with more restrictive communication environments. Effective communication is a fundamental requirement for any effective strategy implementation. Organizational communication plays an important role in training, knowledge acquisition and applied learning during the process of implementation. In fact, communication is vital in every aspect of strategy implementation, as it relates in to the organizational context, organizing processes and the implementation objectives. 5. Implementation Tactics Nutt (1986) stipulates four types of implementation tactics used by managers in making planned changes: intervention, participation, persuasion, and edict. Intervention refers to strategy adjustments made during the implementation stage by introducing new practices and norms. Participation includes formulating strategic goals and nominating a task force that can develop and propose the corresponding implementation options. Persuasion is the tactic which uses involved parties to convince the employees about the desired course of actions. The issuing of directives is the main focus of the implementation tactic edict. Lehner (2004) considers the implementation tactics as genuine organizational behaviour based on the assumption that implementation in general is dependent on the environment, and various strategic and corporate variables. 6. Consensus Nielsen (1983) notes that firms must achieve consensus both within and outside their organization in order to successfully implement business strategies. The consensus about a firms strategy may differ across the operation channels within the company. If the employees of the company are not on the same information level or if information passes through many layers in the organization, a lower level of consensus would result. This lack of shared understanding may create obstacles to successful strategy implementation.(Noble, 1999b). Floyd and Wooldridge (1992a) label the gulf between strategies conceived by top management and awareness at lower levels as implementation gap. Strategic consensus is the agreement between the top, middle, and lower-level managers on the fundamental policies of the organization. Strategic decisions are initiated by a team of top managers and then mandated to the rest of the organization, overlooking the importance of securing consensus with and commitment to the organizational strategy with the lower level employees, which is a big barrier for effective strategy implementation. 7. Commitment Strategy implementation process may fail if the strategy does not achieve support and commitment by the majority of employees and the middle management. Shared understanding without commitment would result in counter effort and may negatively affect the organisational performance. The understanding between middle management and those at the operational level to that of the top management teams strategic goals is of prime importance to successful implementation. Noble Mokwa (1999) have put forward three dimensions of commitment that are central factors which directly influence strategic outcomes: organizational commitment, strategy commitment and role commitment. Organizational commitment is the extent to which a manager identifies with and works toward organization-related goals and values. Strategy commitment is the extent to which a manager comprehends and supports the goals and objectives of an implementation strategy. Role commitment is the extent to which a manager is determine d to perform his individual implementation responsibilities, regardless of his personal beliefs about the overall strategy. 8. Organisational Structure The type of strategy adopted could differ in many ways and have different requirements regarding an adequate organizational structure. Factors relating to the organizational structure are the second most important implementation barrier according to Heide Grà ¸nhaug Johannessens (2002) study. Drazin and Howard (1984) stipulate that a proper alignment of the strategy with the organisational structure is an important pre-requisite for successful implementation of a corporate business strategy (Noble, 1999b). They note that changes in the competitive environment require adjustments to the organizational structure. If an organisations realignment strategies are lacking, it may exhibit poor performance and be at a major competitive disadvantage. 9. Administrative Systems Roth, Schweiger Morrison (1991) study suggests that organisational business units make use of three administrative mechanisms which are formalization, integrating mechanisms, and centralization, to create operational capabilities of configuration, managerial philosophy and coordination, to support business strategy implementation. Some researchers have also focused on the control systems which are one of important ingredients of administrative systems (Drazin Howard, 1984; Nilsson Rapp, 1999). Drazin and Howard (1984) discuss about the role of formal control system in the process of strategy implementation, and suggest that the fluidity of control system contribute to strategy implementation (Noble, 1999b). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This part of the project report would focus on the research design and methodology adopted to carry out the research of the issue chosen which is the factors influencing strategy implementation. The following literature would highlight the components of the research paradigm chosen to accomplish the study. This section of the project report would provide a detailed rationale on how the study would achieve the research objective put forth in the title. This part would explain the methods of data capture used and the issues which would arise in gathering the required information along with the analysis and the interpretation techniques employed to achieve the research aim. Limitations would be included in the following report to make the reader aware of the shortcomings of the chosen methodology; the relevant ethical issues would also be discussed in the proposed research design along-with the resources required to complete the proposed research. The choice for the research methodology adopted is in congruence with the strategic issue chosen for the research proposal. The selection criteria to choose articles for inclusion in the research analysis: The articles which contain the keywords strategy implementation or strategy execution have been included in the literature .From this; further articles were identified using the references sections of the previously retrieved articles. In this way, the report also includes the articles which treat strategy implementation as one of the major subjects even if their title or keywords did not include the terms strategy implementation or strategy execution. As a final selection criterion it was checked whether the articles explicitly discuss factors impeding or enabling strategy implementation success. Data Collection Secondary Sources In order to identify the factors that enable or impede effective strategy implementation, the report has analysed relevant academic, peer reviewed journals such as the Strategic Management Journal, the Academy of Management Journal, the Journal of Management Studies, Long Range Planning, Journal of Management, Academy of Management Executive, Human Relations, Sloan Management Review, Journal of Marketing, etc. using the literature databases of EBSCO Host, ProQuest ABI, Science Direct, JSTOR and Wiley Interscience. Information has also been sourced from Google Scholar and books, newspapers, trade journals, industry portals, government agencies, trade associations, monitoring industry news and developments. The research data would be collected in different organisations or units of an organisation. The organisations were mainly professional service organisations, from both public and private sector. For example, finance, insurance and telecommunications companies, and government departments would be included. The size of the units under study would be 100 to 500 employees. The study would be qualitative in nature, main research method being semi-structured interviews. Primary Sources and Sampling In each organisation or unit, representatives would form three groups, namely the top management, middle management, and lower level personnel, would be interviewed using the questionnaire provided below. Altogether twenty-five interviewees per organisation would be randomly chosen: 2-5 persons representing the top management level, 4-13 persons the middle management level, and 8-17 persons from the lower level personnel. The interviewees would be chosen randomly, ensuring however that different tasks, work groups, and departments were represented equitably. The general topic of the interviews would be strategy implementation. During the interviews, the interviewees would fill out questionnaires, in which they would evaluate the various problem statements. The questionnaire has been given below: Q1. How do you define the concept of strategy implementation? Q2. What kind of issues would you associate strategy implementation with? Q3. How do you participate in the strategy implementation process? Q4. How are the policies pertaining to strategy implementation communicated within the different levels of the organization? Q5. Describe your own role in the process of strategy implementation. Q6. Evaluate the degree of the strategy implementation problems in your organisation. Data Access Issues Some data access issues might arise in the research journey, which could be the unwillingness of the employees to participate in the planned interviews hampering the information gathering capabilities of the subsequent research report along-with lack of co-operation from concerned companies which might not give permission to carry out interviews with its employees fearing a possible leak of its corporate strategy to its competitors. Also finances required for the successful completion of the information gathering process might not be adequate. Data Analysis The results of the questionnaires would be assessed, as well as the comments of the interviewees for the statements would be analysed. The main data analysis method employed would be content analysis of the interviews. The transcribed interviews would be coded accordingly to the central issues of the research. The analysis method would include historical trend analysis and linear regression analysis using software tools, judgmental forecasting, and conjoint analysis. Limitations of the Research Design The approach in conducting the literature review has shortcomings which should be acknowledged. The following are the limitations in the methodology adopted. Collection of articles has been carried out by relying on the databases of EBSCO Host, Science Direct, JSTOR, Wiley Inter Science and ProQuest ABI and the report thus may have overlooked some critical viewpoints on strategy implementation included in monographs or specialists books. Some selective articles in the review, however, rely heavily on concepts from advanced books on corporate strategy thus making up for the shortcoming to a certain extent. The articles have been located using the keywords strategy implementation and strategy execution. This procedure of gathering articles may omit some important articles. The report also excludes some very specific strategy implementation contexts, such as post-merger integration implementation. The research has discovered that most of the conducted studies in the subject focus on the influence of middle managers on strategy implementation. There is no special research relating to lower management and non-management, even if several authors have stated that it is important to consider their effects on strategy implementation as well. Another major research challenge incudes, a lack of understanding between the relationships among the nine reviewed factors, for example, there are major disagreements about the relationship between the variables of communication, commitment and consensus which the report fails to highlight. Also a limiting factor is that there are very few studies that systematically examine how different organizational units and strategy levels can influence strategy implementation, which the report has not included. Strategy implementation involves many theories including agency theory, social learning theory, expectancy theory, organization theory and social system theory. Because of the limited word count it was not feasible to include such theories in the text presented which is also a shortcoming. The lists of journal articles selected are not comprehensive enough, as many other issues could potentially affect strategy implementation. Such other factors, however, are less mentioned or not analysed in-depth, as many of them are also hard to control and modify. Research Ethics For research to be carried out successfully there are many ethical issues that need to be taken into consideration. It is very important to secure the permission and interests of all the people involved in the study. The people involved would be given assurance that any information obtained during the interview process would not be misused as this is the moral responsibility which would be maintained towards the participants. It is the duty of this research to protect the rights of the participants of the study as well as their privacy and sensitivity. The confidentiality of those involved in the observation would be maintained at all times, keeping their anonymity and privacy secure. Resources required for effective research The resources required to carry out the proposed research would require the support and co-operation of the supervisor in charge so as to provide guidance for submitting an effective research analysis report. Also would require permission from the industries chosen for the study of the research issue and the co-operation of its employees for conducting interviews. Adequate financial support would also be required to assist in the completion of the proposed research analysis report to cover the cost of commuting and resultant transportation fares. TIMETABLE TASK SELECTION OF INDUSTRIES FOR RESEARCH FOCUS DAYS 1-5 6-10 10-15 16-20 21-25 25-30 LITERATURE REVIEW/ CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY SOURCES OF DATA INTERVIEWING PROCESS INDEPTH STUDY OF VARIOUS SOURCES ASSESSING RESOURCE FOR CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK COLLECTION OF SECONDARY SOURCES OF DATA DEVELOPMENT OF RATIONALE FOR STUDY FINALLY FORMULATED RESEAERCH PROPOSAL REFRENCES Saunders, M., P. Lewis and A. Thornhill (2007) Research methods for business students, Harlow: FT, Prentice Hall (4th ed.) Blumberg, B., D.R.Cooper and Pamela S. Schindler (2008), Business Research Methods, London: McGraw Hill (second ed.) Wilson, J. 2010, Essentials of Business Research A Guide To Doing Your Research Project London: Sage Allio, M.K. (2005). A Short, Practical Guide to Implementing Strategy. Journal of Business Strategy, 26, 12-21. Beer, M., and Eisenstat, R.A(2000). The Silent Killers of Strategy Implementation and Learning Sloan Management Review, Summer, 29-42. Bourgeois à Ã‚ ¨, L. J., and Brodwin D.R. (1984). Strategic Implementation: Five Approaches to an Elusive Phenomenon. Strategic Management Journal, 5, 241-264 Govindarajan,V., and Fisher.J. (1990). Strategy, Control systems, and resource sharing: effects on business-Unit Performance. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 259-285. Heracleous, L. (2000). The Role of Strategy Implementation in Organization Development Organization Development Journal, 18, 75-86. Higgins, J.M. (2005). The Eight à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Sà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s of Successful Strategy Execution. Journal of Change Management, 5, 3-13. Lehner, J. (2004). Strategy Implementation Tactics as Response to Organizational, Strategic, and Environmental Imperatives. Management Revue, 15, 460-480 Noble, C.H. (1999a). Building the Strategy Implementation Network. Business Horizons, 19-27. Nutt, P.C. (1986). Tactics of Implementation. Academy of Management Journal. 29, 230-261. Nutt, P.C. (1989). Selecting Tactics to Implement Strategic Plans. Strategic Management

Imagery In Macbeth Essay -- essays research papers

Response to â€Å"Macbeth† 2. How does Shakespeare’s use of imagery and recurring symbols add depth and meaning to the plot and characters in the play? In all of Shakespeare's plays he uses many forms of imagery. Imagery is the art of making images, the products of imagination. In the play 'Macbeth' Shakespeare applies the imagery of clothing, darkness and blood. Each detail is his imagery, seems to contain an important symbol of the play, symbols that the audience must understand if they are to interpret either a passage or the play as a whole. Within the play 'Macbeth' the imagery of clothing portrays that Macbeth is seeking to hide his "disgraceful self" from his eyes and others. Shakespeare wants to keep alive the ironical contrast between the wretched creature that Macbeth really is and the disguises he assumes to conceal the fact. The audience thinks of the play honours as garments to be worn; likewise, Macbeth is constantly represented symbolically as the wearer of robes not belonging to him. In the following passage, the idea constantly recurs that Macbeth's new honours sit ill upon him, like loose and badly fitting garments, which are upon him but he is still surprised that he has gained this new position: "New honours come upon him, Like our strange garments, cleave not to their mould, But with the aid of use." (Act I, iii: 144) The second form of imagery used to add to the atmosphere, the imagery of darkness. In a Shakespearean tragedy, the audience have known him to create a special tone, or atmosphere to show the darkness in a tragedy. In 'Macbeth', Shakespeare draws upon the design of the witches, the guilt in Macbeth's soul, and the darkness of the night to establish the atmosphere. All of the remarkable scenes take place at night or in some dark spot; for instance, the vision of the dagger, the murder of Duncan, the murder of Banquo, and Lady Macbeth's sleep walking. Darkness is the time when the traveller hastens to reach safety in his inn, when Banquo rides homeward to meet his assassins; furthermore, it is the time when the wolf howls, the owl screams, and when murder takes forth to his work. In 'Macbeth' darkness symbolizes many things. First, and most importantly, it stands for the evil and death in the play. The darkness could partially blind out all of the horrible things that occur in the night, for only in da... ...s honoured achievement that they congratulate Macduff for. In Macbeth, imagery plays a crucial role in developing the character of MacBeth. The audience sees this through the images of clothing, light and darkness, and blood. Clothing in Macbeth is often compared to Scottish titles, or ranks. Darkness is used to represent evil, and through different types of evil the audience sees Macbeth’s true nature. The murders that Macbeth commits are at night, due to their evil nature. Light, on the contrary, represents good, and shows us the truly brutal nature of Macbeth’s crimes. Blood, the most dominant symbol in the play, shows us the changes in Macbeth’s character, from the start of the play to the end. The viewer sees how the blood drawn by Macbeth changed from noble blood, to corrupt blood. This ultimately, led to his own blood being drawn. Shakespeare makes obvious his marvellous use of imagery, and gives way to feelings that could not have been felt otherwise. Without imagery, this masterpiece may not have been considered so, for we have seen, what a momentous effect it has on the play, as a whole. Remember, a picture tells a thousand words, however, an image might just tell more.

Putnam Paper Essay

Introduction   Putnam’s recent work has mainly focused on bringing philosophy out of its case and back to the world of ordinary people and ordinary social problems. Pragmatic provides us with some ideas for finding the claim that there is no difference between what is real and what we experience as real. A pragmatic realist philosophy of religion is not reductionism and therefore acceptable for religious as well as non-religious philosophers of religion.   Ã‚  Majority of the pragmatists seek to find a middle way between metaphysical realism and relativism and between dogmatism and skepticism by using the pragmatic maxim, in order to establish the meaning of a conception we should consider what practical consequences might conceivably result from the truth of that conception. Belief in what is taken to be true is conceived as a guiding action, that is, it is a habit, a disposition to behave, and its opposite is disbelief and doubt. This doubt is normally caused by surprising phenomenon that is incompatible with one’s earlier accepted beliefs. We begin a process of inquiry whenever the doubt arises where we attempt to obtain a new equilibrium with our environment where our doubt is detached. This new equilibrium refers to new habits and revised beliefs. A glowing inquiry lead to stable view, that is only short-term, and will eventually be followed by new doubt.   Most of the pragmatics conceived an inquiry method as the way we think and have to think in all aspect of life. Cognitive experience is the result of inquiry. An inquiry process begins in a sensible difficulty, going on through the stage of conceptual elaboration of probable resolutions, and results in a concluding reconstruction of the experience into a new cohesive whole. This cohesive whole is not, a closed system.   With this view of a cohesive whole, pragmatists question knowledge as a sort of inactive recording of antecedent facts. They claim that, knowing is vied as a constructive conceptual action, anticipating, and guiding our alteration to future practical interactions with our environment. With that regard, we cannot therefore assign a complete status to the traditional ontological distinction between mind and body, means and end, or between fact and value. However, these differences should functionally and contextually be understood. Moreover, most pragmatists refute truth as correspondence of consideration to things in themselves, but ague that, truth is a subject of successful change of our ideas to challenging circumstances, a view which was supported by William James.   With regard to moral, aesthetic and the religious, there is a pragmatic interrelation between the truth and utility. These truth values are brought by their sensible function in our lives. The religious should have sensible penalty for their people who accept them. According to pragmatism, both religion and science have an explanation concerning who we are as human beings. Nonetheless, science deals with experimental and observational experience, while religion deals with the existential experience.   Putnam ague that objects in the world is always objects conceptualized by people. These objects vary depending on the theory at hand. This implies that what is say concerning the objects as true, presupposes a theory. However, this does not implies that what is say to be true concerning the objects is caused by the theory. Yet, there is no any reason to claim that truth consists with unconseptualized objects, because what people say about objects is based on theory, and so, it is appropriate to see truth as some kind of rational acceptability, perfect consistency with one another and with our experience. According to Putnam the truth can be defined in terms of evidence. This claim was severely question by Alvin Goldman by giving an example of a person who was falsely accused of a crime that was actually committed by somebody else who had already died. Several witnesses gave their evidence and eventually the person was accused without chance to defend his innocent. In such situation, if the definition of truth in terms of evidence is accepted, then automatically the accused person is saying to be guilty which in fact is converse to the truth that the person is not guilty. Goldman therefore, ague that truth can only be said to be exact if it can be defended.   This view does not mean that the truth is a correspondence between judgments and words or that the fact is independent of conceptualized. Putnam’s internalism is supported by the Murat Bac who ague that there is indeed sensible distinction between members of the community who are convince that there is no sense of truth other than what is agreed by them and another community members who believe that suggested truth is what is independent of their best evidence.   According to this argument, the former would accuse Goldman’s innocent man of being guilty while the latter would be more cautious on it. According to the internal realist, they is no description of the world, not even the most advanced scientific one, is the world’s or nature’s own. Ontology, truth and reference are internal to conceptual schemes serving different uses. The outcome of this conceptual view is that we live in a human world; and that there is no ready made world.   Putnam ague that , it is obstinately scientific and culturally dangerous to consider natural science as being more closely clued-up with the true structure of reality than other human language games.   Putnam often views truth as an epistemic concept contrasted to non-epistemic conception of truth proposed by associated theorists. He argued that we should, instead of succumbing to metaphysical or internal realism, accept a reasonable natural realism.   We cannot negate unintelligible statement of the metaphysical realist because their negation is likewise unintelligible as the original statement. According to Putnam, the metaphysical realist does not get to something which is a significant target and that our inability to describe the world entirely is no failure by any means, but is due to collapsing of the description into unintelligible if construed as the negation of such an idea. Truth cannot be just something language internal, but it is a representative relation between language users’ utterances and principally non-linguistic reality, although metaphysical effort to describe this relation as correspondence indeed lead to problem. Truth is the main element in a conceptual system that allows us to use terms such as statement, refers, belief, thought, etcetera. According to Putnam, world involving notions ensnare with our practical habit of act in the world where we live.   Putnam ague that the metaphysical or scientific realist’s try to find a privileged scientific position for describing the world   the way it is, independently of practice laden human perspectives, is a complete failure. His attacks on a tough kind of realism have resulted into more broad attacks on the reductionist, scientific dream of representing eventual reality in terms of scientific theories. Putnam has been interpreted as a relativist, but he has reminded his critics that he never consider the facts found in the world as dependent on how we use language in any common sense of the word dependent. Putnam view could be interpreted as an empirical realism in a Kantian sense, where the world would be constituted by our purpose oriented practices nearly in a way in which the empirical world is a human construction, but not being fictitious. There is a sense that the world and the truths relating to it are human constructions; however it is ever from a human perspective that we say whatever we say concerning the world we take to be real. It is only in particular contexts of philosophy confusion that, we are expected to justify our beliefs about objectives world’s facts. Moreover, we should all the same take our words as corresponding to how things are. Putnam critically evaluates the likelihood of philosophy to make the human lives better, where he borrows from Jame’s and Dewey’s meliorism. He argued that there is no ethical dichotomy between the facts and values which can be drawn. According to him all facts that can be found in our humanly structured world are value laden, and value are everywhere, they extend into each and every corner of our experience and thought. Here Putnam was very categorical in criticize skeptical and relativist theories of ethics, that see values as basically subjective and should be banished from the scientific world view. According to Putnam it is extremely wrong to believe that science as a privilege perception for describing the world that it may perhaps reduced values to something entirely factual.   We have to develop moral images of the world where metaphysical and ethical elements are a deep entangle. Putnam has tried to bring religious issues, characteristically marginalized in scientific oriented analytical philosophy, back to the centre of philosophy. He noted that scientific attacks on theism are based on misunderstandings. Later, Putnam arrives relatively close to Wittgensteinian mysticism, where it is not possible to communicate religious perceptive in a meaningful language. His religious idea is troubled by tensions; however this may be an indication of a profound religious thinker. Human being both are at the centre of theoretical and practical philosophy, this is not clearly separable. The metaphilosophical view as put by Putnam is very critical to make us understand our challenging existence in the world, and thus be able to make a difference on the way we live. Philosophy is a deeply human project which aim at a humanly world view rather than any impersonal unlimited conception. It gives us a clear look at our own situation.   Conclusion   In this work , I have critically discussed the Putnam perspective view of the world, and have argue that human being can only adopt internal perspective which attempt to explain clearly about who we are. Reality is always reality conceptualized by us, building on the experiences and existential ones describing the fact that science and religion have different role in our lives. This however, is not reductionism, but rather taking religious seriously as a human phenomenon. Our view on references, truth, the mind, values, religion, and other issues can be seen as fallible, self-critical attempts to discover what our best practice add to in these varied cases and what kind of philosophy pertinent commitments it makes. References Peter A. French et.al; (1997) ‘God and the Philosophers,’ in Religion, Midwest Studies in Philosophy 21, Minneapolis, pp. 175-187. Boolos, et.al; (1990) Meaning and Method: Essay in Honor of Hillary Putnam, Cambridge. Putnam, H., et.al; (1994) A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind, Oxford, Cambridge, Mass, pp. 507-513.